 | A Non-Chinese realm in modern Yunnan province, acting the late Spring and Autumn period (Chunqiu 春秋) to the Western Han Dynasty (Xihan 西漢). The Dian people had already entered the age of bronze casting and created some interesting and wonderful cultural relics that are very different to the proper Chinese art in shape and appearance. Tilling the fertile fields of the subtropical area, the Dian developed a high-sophisticated technique of rice cropping, but they did not make use of a plough. In 109 emperor Han Wudi 漢武帝 conquered the territory of Dian and established commanderies, but the ruler of Dian was officially installed as king. An old general term for Non-Chinese tribes, especially the southern tribes of the “four barbarians”. During the early Spring and Autumn period (Chunqiu 春秋), inhabitants of the state of Chu 楚 (modern Hunan) were called Man (Jing-Man 荊蠻). The largest tribes during the Han 漢 period were Pangu 槃瓠, Linjun 廪君, and Banzhi 板[木+質]. During the Han period 漢, the Pangu (also called Cong 賨) tribes were famous for their hemp clothes. The most important tribe of the Linjun were the Ba 巴 whose totem was a white tiger. The Banzhi were famous for their music and dances, but were also a martial people that often rebelled against the Han authority. Archeological artefacts give good impressions of the cultural autonomy of the old Non-Chinese tribes of Sichuan and Hunan. During the rebellion of the Daoist Five-Pecks-of-Grain sect (Wudoumidao 五斗米道) under Zhang Lu 張魯 at the end of Eastern Han, many followers and believers were Non-Chinese Man people. After the downfall of Han and the disturbances during the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo 三國) and Western Jin (Xijin 西晉) Man tribes emigrated to the areas of modern Henan, Anhui, and Gansu, but their main settling region was still Hubei, Hunan, and Sichuan. The names of the tribes are manifold, like Jingyong-Man 荊雍蠻, Wuxi-Man 五谿蠻, or Dangyang-Man 當陽蠻, but it is uncertain if all these tribes represent an ethnic unity. The empires in the area of Shu 蜀 (Sichuan), like Cheng-Han 成漢, were always characterized by a large Man population that had a partial political autonomy against the Chinese bureaucracy. The rulers of the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao 南朝) and of the empires in Shu had always the problem that the Chinese farming population was not dense enough to support the economical and fiscal needs of the state and of the gentry. Many Man tribes were abducted form the hills and resettled in the plains as workforce for the Chinese state. In the course of time, most of the Man tribes of the lower countries gradually merged with the Chinese population, but there are some ethnics (hilltribes) today thought to be descendants of the Man, like the Shezu 畬族 and Yaozu 瑤族.Today, the word man means “barbarian” in its real sense. The Mongolians called the southern Chinese – or rather the proper Chinese in their eyes – Manzi 蠻子 „barbarians“.The area of the modern province of Yunnan was once habited by different Non-Chinese tribes, ancestors of many of the national minorities of today. Among these peoples, the "Black Ma.n" (Wuman 烏蠻, said to be ancestors of the Yi Minority 彝族) and the "White Man" (Baiman 白蠻, said to be ancestors of the Bai Minority 白族) were the predominant nations. The Black Ma.n were able to found six tribes with a royal chieftain called zhao 詔 (Nanzhao 南詔 hence means "Southern Kingdom"), these tribes were called Mengshe 蒙舍, Mengsui 蒙嶲, Langqiong 浪穹, Dengtan 邆賧, Shilang 施浪, and Yuexi 越析. In 649 AD the chieftain of the Mengshe tribe, Xinuluo 細奴邏 founded a kingdom (Damengguo 大蒙國) in the area of Lake Erhai 洱海 as "qijiawang 奇嘉王 Outstanding King" but accepted the supremacy of the Tang Dynasty. King Piluoge 皮邏閣 was able to unite the six Man tribes and established his capital at Yangjumie 陽苴咩 near modern Dali 大理/Yunnan. In 738 Piluoge was officially enfeoffed as King of Yunnan 雲南 by the Tang court. Under Piluoge and his son Geluofeng 閣羅鳳 the realm of Nanzhao extended its territory and became an important political and cultural center of southeastern China and the surrounding mountainous areas, inhabited by different tribes of different ethnicities. Although the Tang court protected the unification of the Man tribes by the Nanzhao rulers, the Chinese had to face a military challenge after this southeastern kingdom also developed military strength, especially after the Tang administration had installed the prefecture of Yaozhou 姚州 and the regional government of Nanjian 南劍. Nanzhao united with the northeastern Tibetian kingdom of Tubo 吐蕃 whose ruler bestowed the king of Nanzhao with the title of "zanpuzhong 贊普鍾 Eastern Ruler", and the Nanzhao-Tubo alliance defeated the armies of the Chinese chancellor Yang Guozhong 楊國忠. When Tang China was disturbed by the insurrection of An Lushan 安祿山, Nanzhao was able to develop substantial strength enough to stay unchallengenged until the end of Tang. In 794 King Yimouxun 異牟尋 forged an alliance with the Tang court and helped the Chinese to defeat the kingdom of Tubo. Nevertheless Nanzhao troops permanently endangered Chinese territories and controlled large areas of the south of modern Sichuan.
Like many neighboring states of China, the kingdom of Nanzhao adopted some patterns of the Chinese administratorial system, like the six ministries (in Nanzhao called liucao 六曹, compare Tang administration system), later divided into three agencies (santuo 三托) and nine courts (jiushuang 九爽). The minister was the chancellor (qingpingguan 清平官). The kingdom was administered by military commissioners (jieshi 節使) and commanders-in-chief (dudu 都督) that controlled the prefectures (jian 瞼). Sons of the Nanzhao aristocracy visited the Tang capital Chang'an to obtain Chinese education, and the Chinese Zheng Hui 鄭回 acted as royal mentor and chancellor. Poems of the Nanzhao aristocracy and courtiers are included into the collection Quantangshi 全唐詩. Chinese artisans and craftsmen were employed at the Nanzhao court, and Buddhism found many believers among the Nanzhao population. Chongsheng Monastery 崇聖寺 and the famous three pagodas at Dali were constructed during the Nanzhao period. In 907 Zheng Maisi 鄭買嗣, a descendant of Zheng Hui usurped the throne and ended the rule of the Mengshe kings of Nanzhao.
The Nanzhao kings of the Mengshe tribe (surname Meng 蒙) are:| Xinuluo 細奴邏 (Duluo 獨羅, 617-674), Luosheng 邏盛, Shengluopi 盛邏皮, Piluoge 皮邏閣 (697-748), Geluofeng 閣羅鳳 (748-779), Yimouxun 異牟尋 (780-808), Xungequan 尋閣勸 (709), Quanlongcheng 勸隆晟 (810-816), Quanli 勸利 (817-823), Quanfengyou 勸豐祐 (824-859), Shilong 世隆 (860-877), Longshun 隆舜 (878-897), Shunhuazhen 舜化真 (898-902) |
A term referring to Non-Chinese tribes settling along the course of the Yangtse River during the Zhou period 周. When the feudal state of Chu 楚 gradually won power and enlarged its territory, the Pu withdrew to the mountainous areas in the south. The Pu are thought to have contributed to the indigenious culture of the Chu state that is somewhat different the proper Chinese culture in the Yellow River plain.A country probably located in the hills of modern Yunnan and Myanmar and identical to the modern Shan tribes (?). There were contacts between the Eastern Han (Donghan 東漢) and a king called Yongyoudiao 雍由調 who sent presents to the Chinese emperor, including dwarfs and musicians.An old general term for Non-Chinese tribes, especially of the southeast, or the eastern tribes of the “four barbarians”. In the Western Zhou (Xizhou 西周) period, the population settling in the region the mouth of the Yellow River down to the Yangtse mouth are called Yi, Zhuyi 諸夷, Dongyi 東夷 “Eastern Yi”, Jiuyi 九夷 “Nine Yi”, or else. The oldest word for these eastern Non-Chinese tribes is Hao 皞. Gao Tao皋陶, a minister of the mythical ruler Yu the Great 大禹, is said to be an Yi. The mightiest tribes of the Western Zhou period were the Huaiyi 淮夷 and Xuyi 徐夷 the River Huai 淮水 resp. Xuzhou 徐州 area in modern Jiangsu. These tribes had often been attacking the Shang (hence called Yifang 夷方) and Zhou territory. The Spring and Autumn period (Chunqiu 春秋) saw the foundation of some smaller states by the Yi tribes, like Ren 任, Su 宿, Xugou 須句, Zhuanyu 顓臾, Tan 郯, Liu 六, and Liao 蓼. By the unification of China by the First Emperor of Qin 秦, the Yi had merged with the Chinese. Later, Yi was a general term referring to Non-Chinese, or “uncivilized” people. The aboriginal population of northern Japan, ancestors of the Ainu, were called Yi, as well as the Mongols (compare the dictionary Huayi yiyu 華譯夷語) and the Western merchants.A term referring to the Non-Chinese inhabitants of the southeast and far south of China. They are thought to be Austro-Asiatic people, relatives to and ancestors of the modern Vietnamese. The southernmost Yue are also written Yue 粵, a character that is an alternative name of the city of Guangzhou and the province Guangdong. During the Spring and Autumn period (Chunqiu 春秋) the Yue in the area of Mount Guiji 會稽 (modern Shaoxing 紹興/Zhejiang) founded the kingdom of Yue 越 that was able to conquer the neighboring kingdom of Wu 吳 (also Non-Chinese, capital around modern Suzhou 蘇州/Jiangsu) but was vanquished by the state of Chu 楚 in 306. Yue people settling the north of modern Jiangsu were called Yang-Yue 揚越, the other many tribes were subsumed under the term Baiyue 百越 “The hundred Yue”, Yue tribes more to the west and south were called Oumin 甌閩 (living in Zhejiang, Fujian), Nanyue 南越 (Guangdong), Xiou 西甌 (Guangxi), and Luoyue 雒越 (Fujian). The territory of modern Fujian was conquered by Qin 秦 and later by Han 漢, but was never really controlled by the Chinese bureaucracy. The Yue chieftains Wuzhu 無諸 and Yao 搖 were kings of the area of Fujian in a realm called Ouluo 甌雒. The mountainous territory of modern Guangxi is inhabited by Non-Chinese tribes until today. At the begin of Han, Zhao Tuo 趙佗 founded the empire of Southern Yue (Nanyue 南越) in the area of Guangdong that was autonomous the Han court until 112 BC. Emperor Han Wudi 漢武帝 conquered these areas as well as the north of modern Vietnam (Chinese Yuenan 越南, “The South of the Yue”) and installed Chinese commanderies (jun 郡). Although many Yue tribes still roamed the now unified territory of China, and appear in the historical sources until the end of Han, there are only few Yue people left in China today (e.g. Palyu “Lai”, Bugan “Hualuo or Huazu”, Bit, Bulang, Hu, Kemu, Khuen, Wa etc.). Their main heritage is northern  Vietnam, an area that was settled by the Yue when they withdrew the Chinese pressure. |
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